Sarmatian Racial Ideology (Xenophobic)
Colonial Expansion towards the East (Russia) and South (Turkey)
Excluding Lower Casts
An Ideology of Feudalism: Devotion, Backwardness, Ignorance
"The Shape of Sarmatian Ideology in Poland,", Instytut Historii Polskiej
Akademii Nauk, Acta Poloniae Historica, 19, 1968; Stanisław Cynarski, pp. 5-17
The situation with Jews earlier in the Poland Lithuanian Commonwealth differs
from what took place with Jews later in the Ukraine/Russian empire.
By the Union of Lublin in 1569, the Palatinates of volhynia, Bratislav, and
Kiev were annexed to the Kingdom of Poland.
Bohdan Khmelnytsky's Cossaks ravaged much of Belarus and the Ukraine during 1648-1654.
There then followed a war between Russia and Poland in 1654-1667, followed by the Polish
Turkish war of 1672-1676, then the Great Northern wars of 1700-1721 that destroyed
much of the Radziwiłł estates. The Radziwiłłs repopulated the
estates, encouraging Jews to settle throughout the Radziwiłł latifundium
during the Eighteenth century. 1
By the 1760s, Jews composed 30% to 50% of the population on the Radziwiłł
estates. 2
During the Great Northern Wars (1700-1721), the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth was
repeatedly devastated and depopulated by both the Swedish and Russian armies. Once
again, Jewish settlement was encouraged by the Radziwiłłs, most likely
because unlike Christian townspeople, Jews were not allowed to own agricultural land.
Agricultural land was used by Christians to augment their income, but Jews were thus forced
to specialize in trade and crafts instead. 3
The Radziwiłłs also owned "jurydyki" (enclaves upon Royal, not Radziwiłł
estates: [Wilno, Kowno, Grodno, Nowogródek, Kamieiec in Lithuania and Belarus]).
Such "jurydyki" were not subject to Royal municipal jurisdiction, but instead
were subject to the jurisdiction of the nobles that leased these estates. In this case,
subject to the Radziwiłłs. 4
Some of the Radziwiłł estates were "ekonomia": royal estates on Crown
lands set aside to support the royal court (nine in Crown Poland, seven in the Grand
Dutchy of Lithuania). These "ekonomia" were leased to magnates such as the
Radziwiłłs, Czartoryskis, Sieniawskis, Potockis, etc.
The entire economy was based upon the fil'varok or folwark (manor). The majority of peasants
in Poland, the Ukraine, and Russia were employed in growing grain which was transported to
Western Europe from the Baltic ports of Danzig, Königsburg and Breslau. If the estates were inaccessible
to river trade, grain was distilled into vodka. The average manor was about 60 hectares. The
landlord and his family, the landlord's stewards and other personnel, and about 15-20 serf
families, lived on the manor. Manor landlords were composed of nobles or magnates, or belonged
to Catholic monasteries.
The fil'varok or folwark was comprised of three components: demesne fields (land that belonged
to the landlord), land belonging to the village administrator of the landlord, the "podstarosta"
(Polish) or "soltys" (Russian). A small strip of land belonging to individual serfs, for
the raising of subsistence crops. The village was in the center of the fil'varok, and contained
the landlord's manor house, the residents of the "podstarosta", peasant dwellings, and a
tavern or distillery (also owned by the landlord), which required a specific right to sell salt
and alcohol: the right of propinatsiia. There might also be a fishpond, Mill (lumber or for grain),
a mine, or even a factory. Near the village center was a Commons (pasture lands for horses used by
the landlord, "podstarosta", or peasants). Corvée labor (barshchina, in Russian) was
required of the serfs, and was typically about two days out of the week for one or more members of
the serf household. There could be much more barshchina, depending upon the particular manor.
Typically the husband and elder sons worked to fulfill the corvée requirements, while the
wife and younger children worked on the strips of land to support the family. In addition to serfs
and free men, there were half serfs (half as much land) and quarter serfs (a quarter as much land as
full serfs) and kholop (or chłop) or landless slaves (permanent or temporary slaves).
The magnates maintained order through their personal armies, composed of petty nobles (shliakhta
khodachkova), and of course, the estate jail.
Corvée work could include work in mines, maintaining roads and bridges, even factory work,
etc.
"A History of Ukraine", Paul Robert Magocsi, University of Washington Press, 1998, pp. 144,
140, 254
Based upon "lustracje" or "inwentarz", one finds thirty two towns listed
as Radziwiłł "jurydyki". 5
In addition the following:
"The court ([Radziwiłł] administration) should make an
effort [to establish] leases wherever possible in order to enrich [our] treasury, and
when it is impossible [to do this under present conditions, it should be done] by bringing
in the Jews". 6
Jews paid revenues based upon the number of occupants in a house. This tax, called "czynsz"
or chimney taxes: the number of occupants being proportional to the number of chimneys. There were
other sources of revenue, however. 7
While inns, mills, bridges, duties, etc. were sources of revenue, entire estates could also be
leased. "Dzierzawa" designated estate leases, with "dzierzawca" designating the
estate leasee. 8
Monopoly rights and duties were leased as "arendas" (as opposed to estates) as "propinacyjne".
Examples included:
Production (distillation) and sale (inns) of alcoholic beverages (vodka) based upon grain,
honey (mead), or beer (kvass),
click to see.
9
Mills (milling of grain into flour, payment of a percentage of flour).
9
Bridges and bridge tolls. 9
Fish ponds. 9
Weights and scales used in market places. 9
Timber and potash (ashes from burned trees), hemp, flax seeds, furs, etc. were exported, shipped
on rafts on rivers such as the Nieman, Dwina, San, Vistula, as well as other rivers: Odra, Pregel, etc.
to Baltic ports such as Gdańsk, Königsberg, Memel, Riga, as well as other ports: Lublin,
Poznan, Torun, Gniezno, Warsaw, Jaroslaw, Kazimierz, Łowicz, Krzepice, Wilno, Grodno, Brzesc,
Leipzig. Imports included fine fabrics, French wines, perfumes, English clocks, weaponry, coffee,
spices, metals (silver, iron, steel, lead), salt, salt herring, paper, even black African
slaves, etc.
10Click to see.
Jews usually preferred "propinacyjne" over "dzierzawa", but wealthy and powerful
Jews did on occasion lease estates. This could (and did) lead to problems. Jews were not
allowed to raise their hands against non-Jews such as Christians nor serve as judges
over non-Jews. 11
Some Jews held estate leases but were so ruthless in their exploitation of the peasants living
upon these estates that they percipitated an anti-Semitic uprising in Krazyczew (1740-1744).
12 Most of the Jewish community
viewed such Jewish "dzierzawca" as despots, and despised these men. Such "dzierzawca"
were hardly representative of Judaism and treated other Jews despotically as well. Nevertheless,
all Jews were identified as being no different. Given the historic background of Bohdan
Khmelnytsky, as well as Blood libels, the anti-Semitism is understandable, while inexcusable.
13
Over time, modifications took place. A "arenda jeneralna" with a manager administered
estate sub "arenda jeneralna" each with a manager. These sub "arenda jeneralna"
administered secondary arendarz. Thus a higherarchy of arendarz was created. For example:
"arenda jeneralna" for "propinacyjne" (alcoholic beverages),
with "secondary arendarz" for "piwna" (beer).
"arenda jeneralna" for "propinacyjne" (alcoholic beverages),
with "secondary arendarz" for "miodowa" (mead).
"arenda jeneralna" for "propinacyjne" (alcoholic beverages),
with "secondary arendarz" for "gorzalczana" (vodka)
"arenda jeneralna" for "propinacyjne" (alcoholic beverages),
with "secondary arendarz"
for "szynkowna" (monopoly to sell alcohol at a specific place)
"arenda jeneralna" for "propinacyjne" (mills)
"arenda jeneralna" for "propinacyjne"
(monopoly on customs and duties of commercial activity).
14
Other sources of income:
"kapszczyzna" (tax to produce alcohol [distillery])
"wagowe" (duty on goods sold by weight using town scales: tobacco, perfume, anise, wax,
iron/steel, leather, cotton)
"pleczkowe" (tax on livestock)
"sosowe" (tax on salt, salt fish, etc.)
"jarmarkowe" (tax during annual fair [hemp, hops, etc.])
"mostowe" (toll on merchant crossings on river bridges, number of horses pulling a wagon)
"brzegowe" (duty on river bank rafts)
The Radziwiłłs constructed factories on their Lithuanian latifundium
before 1764. Possibly the Radziwiłłs were following Peter the Great
who had created serf factory towns c. 1720. Factories were created for glass and
mirrors, textiles, and porcelains. The workers, including women, were peasants,
the labour viewed as corvée obligations.
15
There were different kinds of specialized towns. Towns that focused upon
salt, lead, silver and zinc mining. Towns that focused upon livestock.
Towns that focused upon ceramics, crafts and agriculture. Towns that focused
upon leather work, textiles, breweries, and bakeries. Towns that focused upon
transit trade (waggon drivers, inns, blacksmiths, wheelwrights and cartwrights).
University towns existed in Cracow, Wilno, and Poznań. The fortress city
(with a garrison) at Kamieniec Podolski required towns to provide services and
supplies for the army. Towns could be classified not only as Crown, Magnate
or Church, but by specialized function as well. "Functional Types of Polish
Towns in the XVI-XVIIIth Centuries", Andrzej Wyrobisz, The Journal of
European Economic History, Vol. 12, No. 1, 1983, pp. 69-103
Jews were very successful in eighteenth-century Poland-Lithuania. Given the
extremely anti-Semitic views held at this time, one cannot but ask how this
occurred. The peasant uprising in Krazyczew (1740-1744) is proof that some
Jews acted immorally at times, even if other Jews opposed these despotic
Jews. Economic dominance did not arise due to Jewish perfection. Jews were
literate and able to do arithmetic in a society where the majority (peasants)
lacked these abilities. Communications between businessmen were carried out
almost exclusively in Yiddish and Hebrew, which promoted an internal cohesion
that effectively excluded non-Jews. Furthermore, common cultural and legal
institutions provided the tools required for business success.
16
Furthermore, in many ways, the "arendarze jeneralna" (often Jews)
functioned very much as the lord's (Radziwiłłs) private bankers.
17
In addition, rabbis developed "mamran", a kind of promissory note
that made commercial loans legal. Thus Jewish financial credit supported
commerce on the magnate estates. 18
A Jewish community also issued licenses called "hazaka" and the
holder obtained monoply rights to a speified economic endeavor.
However, the Radziwiłłs used their power to choose Jews that could
maximise their profits. These dishonorable Jews paid high prices to buy
"dzierzawa" and to buy prestigious honors such as being
"rabbis", then recouped their money by extortion. Thus such Jews were
unlearned, not viewed as qualified and were not respected by the Jewish
community. Such corrupt Jews favored the interests of magnates (and themselves).
They acted as informers upon the Jewish community. They did not represent the
views of the Jewish community that they could (and did) threaten. It is not
surprising that such Jews precipitated anti-Semitic uprisings such as that at
Krazyczew in 1740-1744. 19
Spław, River Trade in Poland, Lithuania, Latvia: 18th Century
The major rivers in the area of Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, and Latvia
were the best means of transport from and to the magnate latifundia.
Products could be marketed from estate towns to cities upon the Baltic
for further distribution. We are dealing with a feudal society, thus
products included grain, hemp, timber, potash, furs, honey, waxes, etc.
This market might be modeled as similar to the Hanseatic League: a league
limited or closed to most people, open only to the magnates that had
access to sufficient capital and labour resources.
Flotillas of large rafts were used, terminating at or near Baltic ports
such as Breslau, Gdańsk, Königsburg, Memel (Klaipeda), Riga. Using
rivers such as the Nieman, Dwina, etc. Freight charges were levied to
finance flotillas, called "fracht" or "frocht".
20 For further
information, click here.
English
transliteration
Language
Polish,
or exception
Definition (meaning)
Citation
21
arenda
Latin
A lease (rent must be paid by leasee).
arenda jeneralna
An arenda jeneralna (with a manager) administered an estate secondary arenda (with its manager).
brezegowe
Duty on riverbank rafts (unloading).
chałupa
A shack.
*, p. 216
czynsz
Tax paid to landowners
dobra
A large section of a latifundium composed of several klucze.
*, p. 216
dzierżawca
Slavic
Dzierżawa is an estate lease (not a lease of a tavern, or to sell alcohol, etc.). A dzierżawca is the estate leasee.
egzekucja
Egzekucja was the way a magnate enforced estate "laws". A
detachment of magnate's soldiers or a posse of lesser nobility
dependent upon the magnate could arrest people, beat them, or
even burn down their homes if they did not comply with the
magnate's demands.
ekonomia
Crown estates on Crown lands, set aside to support the royal court are called "ekonomia".
fil'varok or folwark
A manor.
*, p. 220
fracht or frocht
Tax based upon the space used for freight on river raft trade.
froktarz
A person who shipped frokt (freight) by river raft.
*, p. 217
gorzalczana
Vodka tax.
hazaka
Hebrew
A license granted by a kahal (governing council of a Jewish
community) entitling the holder to a monoply right in some
economic enterprise.
*, p. 217
inwentarz
Magnate inventories or estate records.
jurydyki
Magnate (juridical) enclaves, located upon Crown estates.
kapszczyzna
Tax on the production of alcohol (distillery tax).
kasztelan (palatine)
Person in charge of a zamek (castle). Focus of a palatinate.
Administrative headquarters).
*, p. 218
klucz
A basic unit of a latifundium composed of towns, villages,
and manors.
*, p. 218
kramarka
Women town stall keepers (especially selling Turkish and Italian fine textiles, spices, honey, furs).
pp. 165-168
laszt
Measure of volume (river raft trade).
lustracje
Crown inventories of Crown estate records.
magnate
Landowning aristocrat. Tracts of land are extremely large
[latifundia], including towns, distilleries, roads, bridges,
ponds, forests, factories, etc.
A clerk (on the river rafts) recording those who carried
frocht (freight), amounts, merchandize, and payments.
*, p. 92
piwna
Beer (Kvass) tax.
pleczkowe
Livestock tax.
plótno
Linen carried on the river raft trade to Gdańsk.
*, p. 98
porits
Hebrew
Landowner.
24
propinacje
A purchased monopoly right (especialy in the alcohol trade).
protekcja
Magnates offered merchants on the river raft trade,
"protection" against marauders and extortionate
customs charges.
*, p. 91
sosowe
A tax on salt, salt fish.
spław
River raft trade.
*, p. 219
szynk
A bar (tavern).
*, p. 220
szyprowie
A river raft skipper (additionally, a pisarz and a szafarz).
*, p. 91
szafarz
A steward (factor) on river rafts acting as a purser:
procuring and dispensing supplies en route.
*, p. 92
szynkowna
A tax on a location (for example, a lucrative place in a market).
szyprowie
A river raft skipper (additionally, a pisarz and a szafarz).
*, p. 91
targowe
A weekly market tax.
targownik
A market-tax lessee.
*, p. 220
wagowe
A duty on goods sold by weight.
włość
A large section of a latifundium including several klucze.
*, p. 220
wojewoda
A Crown appointed regional governor.
zamek
A castle (klucz administrative headquarters).
*, p. 220
*
"The Lords' Jews: Magnate-Jewish Relations in the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth during the Eighteenth Century", M. J. Rosman
Jewish Crafts in Poland
Arendarz in different occupations such as inns or mills, etc. did not
exhaust all occupations that employed Jews. Many Jews worked in crafts.
Craftsmen typically had to work in guilds in Poland, and guilds were
usually closed or restricted to Catholics, explicitly excluding Jews,
Armenians, Dissidents, Protestants, Greek Orthodox Catholics, Unitarians,
White Russians, Moslems, and Tartars. 25
The occupations employing craftsmen helps fill out a description of
Polish society. Craftsmen worked in occupations, including:
Barbers (Felshers), bookbinders, brush and comb makers, butchers, button makers,
candlemakers, carpenters, embroiderers in gold braid, furriers (especially Lwow),
glaziers, glove makers, gun makers, harness makers, hat and cap makers,
house painters, kerchief and ribbon makers, lace-makers (especially Cracow),
locksmiths, musicians (spielleute, spielmann, spielfrau, spielweib, spilman),
metal workers (gold, silver, tin, brass, pewter, etc.), passementerie,
saddlers, shoemakers, soap makers, swordmakers, tailors, watchmakers.
26
1
"Money, Power, and Influence in Eighteenth-Century Lithuania", Adam Teller, pp. 27, 28
2
ibid., p. 31.
3
ibid., p. 32.
4
ibid., pp. 34, 270
5
ibid., pp. 35, p. 240
6
ibid., p. 37
7
ibid., pp. 269, 304
8
ibid., p. 64
9
ibid., pp. 68, 111
10
ibid., pp. 79, 83, 163
11
ibid., p. 75
12
ibid., p. 88-101
13
"The Autobiography of Solomon Maimon", pp. 20-22
14
"Money, Power, and Influence in Eighteenth-Century Lithuania", Adam Teller, pp. 111-113
15
ibid., pp. 157, 158
16
ibid., p. 193
17
ibid., p. 195
18
ibid., p. 154
19
"Tradition and crisis? Eighteenth Century Critiques of the Polish-Lithuanian Rabbinate",
Adam Teller, Jewish Social Studies, Vol. 17, no. 3, 2011, pp. 1-39
20
"Money, Power, and Influence in Eighteenth-Century Lithuania", Adam Teller, p. 269
21
ibid., especially pp. 269-271
22
"A World Apart: A Memoir of Jewish Life in Nineteenth Century Galicia", Joseph Margoshes, p. 187
23
"Money, Power, and Influence in Eighteenth-Century Lithuania", Adam Teller, p. 15
24
"A World Apart: A Memoir of Jewish Life in Nineteenth Century Galicia", Joseph Margoshes, p. 187
25
"A History of Jewish Crafts and Guilds", Mark Wishnitzer, pp. 211, 243
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